12.5.22
Getting from Point A to Point B: Creating Good Transitions - ppt download
Getting from Point A to Point B: Creating Good Transitions - ppt download: What is a transition? Bridges parts of your paper together: Helps you (writer) carry over a thought from one sentence to another, from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to another with words or phrases Guides the reader to interpret ideas the way you (as a writer) want them to. Point B Point A
18.4.13
Degtyar Valentyn. Peer review of research paper by Evgenia Evseeva
Paper of
E.Evseeva on factors impacting domestic violence is surely the one of interest
to social studies scholars. By its content the paper serves as a solid
introduction into the problematics of domestic violence and research of its
sources. First thing Evseeva reveals is deeper conceptualization of domestic
violence, which implies more forms of suppression or abuse than usually
perceived. That is, domestic violence is a multidimensional concept, that names
not only sexual or physical violence, but also economic deprivation, moral
humiliation, or forced isolation from the outside world.
Furhter
provided in the paper is a good literature review on conceptual researhes of
social factors contributing to increased likelihoods of domestic violence
occurrence. This is presented clearly, next two definite research studies are
more deeply examined, at this point, however, the reader might need more prior
knowledge of sociology and statistical research methods. Evseeva skillfully and
consistently analyses the two studies of domestic violence factors,
particularly the study of Macmillan on socioeconomic status of the spouse and
the study of Kaukinen on status consistence of the marriage members. She
clarifies hypotheses set out by these researches, elaborates on and criticizes
their statistical methods, their reliability, and summarizes their findings.
The content
of this part is a strong feature of the paper, it points well to the importance
of precise concept definition and operationalization of its measurement for a
virtuous research on the topic. There is, however, a light lack of transition
to help guide the reader through the paper and allow for non-specialists in the
field see the structure and objectives of the paper itself. Nevertheless, the
paper is a strong professional inquiry aimed at coherent assesment of domestic
violence structural reasons and social vectors to be promoted in order to
minimize its occurrence in society. Therefore, the paper is a recommended
reading for social science scholars.
17.4.13
Oliinyk Kateryna
Professor Yaroslava Fedoriv
Academic Writing A2
13 April 2013
The Nature of Russian Formalism
The beginning of the XX century in literary studies was
marked with a new vector of scientific and artistic mind; it was directed to
evolution and renovation of this field. Russian formalists were in an
avant-garde of these movements. Without
any doubt, formalism as a wave of literary studies called the attention to
itself with the question of a composition’s form. In the manual to poetical
activity “How to make a poetry?” Vladimir Maiakovski represents the formalist’s
work: “With removing, breaking and destroying monuments, we showed for the
readers the Greatest from the absolutely uncertain and strange side. Kids (as
well as young literary schools) always want to get what is inside the paper
pony. After the work of formalists the internal organs of all paper horses and
elephants become clear” . (Maiakovski 82) According to this opinion, the main
idea of formalism becomes reasonable too. It is consisted in reorganization of
the previous way of understanding the literary composition with an accent on
its form, not only the contents.
There were two groups who researched formalism in Russia –
Moscow Linguistic Circle founded by Roman Jacobson and Society for the Study of
Poetic Language (OPOYAZ) founded in St. Petersburg by Viktor Shklovsky, Boris
Eichenbaum, and Yury Tynyanov. In the capital, scientists were surrounded
mostly on the linguistic subject and the society of Petersburg worked with a
literature. Particularly, a question of the language and its transformation in
the work of art was the first and basic in Russian Formalism.
The first step to formalistic method was made by the head of
the OPOYAZ Viktor Shklovsky in the article “Resurrection of the word”. The
author takes into account the perception received from images and words. And in
the article “Art as a method”, which became a so-called manifest of formalism,
Viktor Shklovsky proposes a theory of defamiliarization (ostraneniie) to
overcome the automation of the perception; and at the same time it became a way
to return to the meaning of the word and to the sensitivity of the form.
Austrian scientist Oge Hanzen-Liove distinguishes a concept
of defamiliarization (ostraneniie) as a nucleus of the whole Russian formalism.
Without any doubt, it is a narrowing of all formal method’s wide system.
However, these problems became basic in the OPOYAZ`s work. The problem is that
“the thing goes pass by us as wrapped one, we know that it takes some space,
but we see only its surface.” (Shklovski 14) The author leads this line to
hyperbolic conclusion saying that in such way an automation of perception takes
away not only simple things from the recipient, but also a wife or a fear of
war. Pursuant to these problems, Viktor Shklovski organized the concept of art:
“To return a feeling of life, to sense things, to make a stone stony there is
so-called art. The aim of art is sensibility of things, seeing, but not
recognizing; a method of art is a method of defamiliarization (ostraneniie), of
complicating form.” (Shklovski 15)
In this context it is useful to refresh the conception of
Yurii Tunianov about evolution and a constructional principle. According to the
scientist, the idea of evolution in literature is based on the two contrast
feelings of automation and novelty. The author circumscribes four stages of
evolution: opposition, using, mass using, and automation. In addition, the more
unusual appearance is, the more influential it is. In the opinion of Yurii
Tunianov, every deformity, every “mistake”, and every “incorrectness” of
normative poetics is a new potential constructional principle. (Tunianov 236)
Therefore, according to evolution and this principle, the recipient relives
every thing in the composition, feels it again as for the first time.
Obviously, new
controversial opinion found its negation among the conservative
content-supporters. Thus, to understand ideas of Russian Formalism in
completeness it is worth to look on them through the extant criticism.
First thing of literary work’s formalists were stressing on
is unity of all components. What is more, Russian scientists were denying the
usual opposition of form and contents. In the same time, they were subjected to
criticism mostly because the priority of form. According to Svetlana
Matviyenko, formalists have always been criticized for an ignorance of the
contexts, while the awareness of form in its contextuality was one of the
highlights in formalist theoretical movement. (Matviyenko 24) But novelty of
the reorientation from ‘what’ to ‘how’ contained in idea about form as a
starting point which creates the content for itself.
On the other hand, there still were lots of scientists who
pursued to learn the content only. The idea about importance of form was
rejected as a mechanical and algebraical opinion without creative inspiration.
Besides, only position based on content allowed to be inserted into the
literary studies with its orientation on the social and political value of a
composition. For instance, Vladimir Hadzinsky states that the art is a
"product of revolution" (Hadzinsky 179); in other words, he believed
that art is purely utilitarian. Thus, formalism as a new methodology in
literary studies raised a question about the credibility of Marxism.
Notoriously, the latter it was promoted as the only possible method and the end
for Soviet literature.
However, formalists doubted even the term of content and
offered to substitute it on material. According to their works, all the plots,
motifs and artistic images had been already done and just can be used again:
“The essential to represent was not the quality of what was combined, but to
show how this was happened - “the labyrinth of the clutches””. (Hanzen 233)
This means that individuality of the author can be described just in the
building of form.
Therefore, literary studies with a works of Russian
formalists were reoriented to the new idea of form as a first point of the composition.
Revising a major opinion of literary studies, which were attached by
content-supporters, was a big step to creative individuality over the social
and political servant.
It is worth to stress that there were other receptions of
formal method. The articles about form and contents were published during the
literary discussion of 1925-1927th in Ukraine. What is more, the leaders of the
debates – masterpiece society “VAPLITE” and Russian formalists have got a lot
of similar and some different thoughts about literature, which are interesting
to look through. First of all, both circles insisted on separation of the
literary studies as particular science. On the other hand, throughout the
interchange of perspectives, the members of “VAPLITE” kept with the idea of
attraction the biographic and psychological methods for analyzing text. In
contrast to Ukrainian artists Russian ones protested against any unliterary
backgrounds in their studies. However, the fallows of “VAPLITE” adopted
formalist’s set of instruments. The main point of Russian artist was the denial
of the common opposition of form and contents; the Ukrainian scientist accented
on this likewise.
In conclusion, Russian formalism appeared in an avant-garde
of modernistic literary studies. This method proposes reorganization in
literature as in the science and, particularly, in the body of composition.
Scientific articles, critique work or personal art of formalists were directed
on renovation the freedom of recipient. What is more, an idea of importance of
the form was adopted in almost every modernistic wave of literary studies. It
found its response in semiotic studies, receptive critique, and it also
influenced on the next literary studies of structuralism. Nowadays, works of
Russian formalists still have its value and wide applications in literary
research and critique.
Matviienko, S. A. (2004) Discourse of a Formalism: the
Ukrainian Context. Lviv: Litopys.
Tynianov, Ju. N.
(1977) Poetic. History of Literature. Cinema. Мoscow: Nauka.
Hadzinsky, V. (1923) A Few Words to the Question of
"Form and Content" Chervonyj shliah, (4-5), 174-79.
Hanzen-Liove, O. A. (2001) Russian Formalism Moscow: Jazyk
Ruskoj Kultury.
Shklovsky, V. B. (1983) On the Theory of Prose. Moscow:
Sovetskij pisatel.
Eikhenbaum, B. M. (1987) On the Literature. Moscow:
Sovremennyj pisatel.
Erlich, V. (1965) Russian Formalism: History-Doctrine. The
Hague: Mouton.
Jameson, F. (1972) The Prison-House of Language : a Critical
Account of Structuralism and Russian Formalism. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Matviienko, Svitlana. Discourse of a Formalism: the
Ukrainian Context. Lviv: Litopys, 2004. Print.
Tynianov, Jurij. Poetic. History of literature. Cinema.
Мoscow: Nauka, 1977. Print.
Hadzinsky, Viktor. “A Few Words to the Question of
"Form and Content"”. Chervonyj
shliah 4-5 (1923): 174-79. Print.
Hanzen-Liove, Oge. Russian Formalism. Moscow: Jazyk Ruskoj
Kultury, 2001. Print.
Shklovsky, Viktor. On the Theory of Prose. Moscow: Sovetskij
pisatel , 1983. Print.
Eikhenbaum, Boris. On the Literature. Moscow: Sovremennyj
pisatel, 1987. Print.
Erlich, Viktor. Russian Formalism: History-Doctrine. The
Hague: Mouton, 1965. Print.
Jameson, Fredric. The Prison-House of Language : a Critical
Account of Structuralism and Russian Formalism. Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1972. Print.
Research Paper. Mogilnyy Roman
Mogilnyy Roman
Yaroslava Fedoriv
Course of Academic Writing, A-14
11.04.2013
Public Relations and Corporate Social
Responsibility
Public relations is a specific form
of organization, a method of crystallization and strengthening of specific
variety of social activities connected with important social task of subject
internal and external public optimization. In general PR is considered to be
innovating science due to the main aim- creating a two-way communication
between the consumer and the one who offers something.
Public relations consist of 5
categories, such as: financial public relations, consumer public relations,
crisis communication, internal communications, and government relations. The
first one deals with communicating financial results and business strategy. On
the other hand the second one consists of gaining publicity for a particular
product. The third one’s aim is responding in a crisis. The fourth works with
communication within the company itself. And the last one engages the government
departments to influence public policy. [Korolko, 2007, 20]
Every time has its own tendency. The tendency of 1970s
and 1980s was marketing. 1990s was the time of strategies. In 2000s HR was the
main aim. 2010s is the time of Public Relations. Nowadays business CEO placing
a PR manager very close is a common situation. PR manager is thought to be eyes
and ears of the whole business or political structure.
In
the 2012 PR sphere grew up by 8% and its annual turnover reached 10 billion
dollars. [http://www.holmesreport.com/news-info/12174/Global-Rankings-2012-PR-Industry-Up-Eight-Percent-To-10bn.aspx]. It may be named one of the most growing spheres and
even compared with Internet.
Unlike the US and Europe, in Ukraine studying Public
Relations is a growing tendency. There are a couple of bachelor programs, one
master and few specialization courses while in the US and Europe this science
is widely spread in universities. Every year thousands of universities
worldwide add Public Relations study programs.
PR is first a theoretical science. There is a great
amount of literature. Still much knowledge is gained during working in this
sphere. Many things can only be learned while working. But still to work
properly a person should be theoretically prepared and it prevents from making
basic mistakes.
In fact PR is very important for business. Its main
aim is to make the firm work in a right direction and create a brand. That
gives a real competitive advantage. It even may happen that PR department is
more effective than the product quality. It is thought that advertising is just
enough to be successful. Nowadays many firms have such a strategy. But there is
a common knowledge that two-way communication gives more advantages than
one-way one because in that case consumer feels more satisfied.
After studying Public Relations and
graduating, students have to decide where to work. Mostly there is a choice
between a PR agency and PR department. Working in a PR agency gives a newcomer
a possibility to work in different spheres and understand which one oneself
prefers. Within a PR department working is limited with only one sphere without
any variety. PR agency may prepare a PR-manager with wide knowledge without one
target sphere. On the other hand, PR department prepares a professional in one
exact sphere. The state your clients are in differ as you a PR agency worker.
There is only one firm state to work with in a PR department. The main
principle is that the work goes faster in a PR agency. On average PR department
working process has a low pace.
Except university programs and
courses there is much Ukrainian literature on PR. The most widely spread is Public Relations by Korolko Valentin. It
is considered to be the most detailed and structured book about Public
Relations. The book gives an understanding of the PR science. It gives the
knowledge about PR strategies, PR tactics, and management in general. Book also
contains practical advices.
In general, it is very important to
mention the fact that over past 10 years Public Relations as a profession has
changed much. Even though the cooperation with media has remained one of the
main aspects of it, the most part of efforts is devoted to creating and
supporting the main asset- corporate reputation. The nowadays function of PR is
to generate the content.
The number of PR managers has grown
rapidly. It has happened because of the current informational situation. 21st
century is supposed to be called the time of information and freedom. And so
the information has to be controlled somehow. Social networks and Internet in
general require a special treatment of PR managers. Their main function is
making the surrounding world transparent. And still that is directly connected
with Public Relations and its workers’ duties.
Corporate Social Responsibility
It is necessary to highlight another
PR function. It is making the world better. Event not counting the fact that PR
managers only operate with truth, such a definition as Corporate Social
Responsibility was founded due to Public Relations.
Corporate Social
Responsibility is a continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and
contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the
workforce and their families as well as the local community and society at
large.
CSR is one of the newest management strategies
where companies try to create a positive impact on society while doing
business. There is no clear-cut definition of what CSR comprises. Every company
has different CSR objectives though the main motive is the same. All companies
have a two point agenda- to improve qualitatively and quantitatively. The
second is as important as the first and stake holders of every company are
increasingly taking an interest in the outer circle-the activities of the
company and how these are impacting the environment and society. Social responsibility is an ethical ideology
that has an obligation to act to benefit society at large. Social
responsibility is a duty every individual or organization has to perform so as
to maintain a balance between the economy and the ecosystem. A trade-off always
exists between economic development, in the material sense, and the welfare of
the society and environment. Social responsibility means sustaining the
equilibrium between the two. It pertains not only to business organizations but
also to everyone whose action impacts the environment. This responsibility can
be passive, by avoiding engaging in socially harmful acts, or active, by
performing activities that directly advance social goals. [Lord Holme, Richard Watts,
2000, p.3]
Still CSR is an average aspect of
every successful business in developed countries. Earlier it gave a competitive
advantage to companies, but now it may be named an unspoken rule for business.
All the top companies of the world are in the list of top CSR investors.
Microsoft, Google, Walt Disney Pictures, BMW, and Apple are on first 5
positions. [4] It is a stable tradition to invest in CSR accordingly to the
income.
Corporate Social Responsibility is
divided into internal and external. Internal in connected with the company
itself. It consists of good working conditions and appropriate attitude.
External one is considered to cope with problems of the surrounding world.
There are different
types of CSR approaches: Canadian, the Continental European and the
Anglo-Saxon.
A more common approach to CSR is
corporate philanthropy. This
includes monetary donations and aid given to local and non-local nonprofit
organizations and communities, including donations in areas such as the arts,
education, housing, health, social welfare, and the environment, among others,
but excluding political contributions and commercial sponsorship of events.
Some organizations do not like a philanthropy-based approach
as it might not help build on the skills of local populations, whereas
community-based development generally leads to more sustainable development.
Another approach to CSR is to
incorporate the CSR strategy directly into the business strategy of an
organization. For instance, procurement of Fair
Trade tea and coffee has been
adopted by various businesses including KPMG.
Another approach is garnering
increasing corporate responsibility interest. This is called Creating Shared Value, or CSV. The
shared value model is based on the idea that corporate success and social
welfare are interdependent. A business needs a healthy, educated workforce,
sustainable resources and adept government to compete effectively. For society
to thrive, profitable and competitive businesses must be developed and
supported to create income, wealth, tax revenues, and opportunities for
philanthropy. Many approaches to CSR pit businesses against society,
emphasizing the costs and limitations of compliance with externally imposed
social and environmental standards. Many companies use the strategy of
benchmarking to compete within their respective industries in CSR policy,
implementation, and effectiveness. Benchmarking involves reviewing competitor
CSR initiatives, as well as measuring and evaluating the impact that those
policies have on society and the environment, and how customers perceive
competitor CSR strategy.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_Social_Responsibility)
In fact CSR is useful for management. Stimulation of
the staff work is the main aim of managing. CSR
gives that opportunity with many aspects that help much. Good working
conditions, attitude, and high salaries are highly motivating.
In Ukraine Corporate Social
Responsibility is a new trend and it gains popularity every year. Trendwatching
Ukraine 2012 conducted a survey about CSR role in 2012. The survey was
conducted among 400 people of the age from 18 to 35 living on the cities with
the population over 1 million people. From the answers 37% of people choosing
from equal goods would rather take the social responsible brand, 33% rather
choose product by quality than CSR, and 22% would like to conduct a social
responsible business. As for a new trend that may be called good statistics that
means the understanding of the social responsibility value. Almost every third
In Ukraine SCM, DTEK and METINVEST
are named the most Corporate Social Responsible business companies.
Conclusion
Public Relations is a new science. It is very popular
nowadays and its market grows every year. This tendency has also reached
Ukraine. Both successful business and government have PR departments. PR
agencies are in.
One of the most popular aspects of PR is Corporate
Social Responsibility. It may be called one of the most demanded trends of
nowadays. It has different approaches and has turned into a special way of
living.
As for a new phenomenon in Ukraine, CSR is given much
attention and is truly supported by customers. Every third customer pays much
attention to a social position of the brand he prefers. It shows the
perceptiveness of the CSR as the way of living.
Public Relations makes business transparent and is a
new better way of conducting business.
Work Cited
Korolko,
Valentin Public Relations. Kyiv:
Kyiv-Mohyla Academy 2009. Print
Iacocca,
Lee Where have all the leaders gone?
New York: New York Times 2007. Print
Holme, L., Watts, R.
(2000) Making Good Business Sense. The
World Business Council for Sustainable Development 3-5
UNIAN (2012, December). The
most social responsible companies were highlighted- Reputation Institute.
Retrived from:
Holmesreport
(2012, July). Global Rankings 2012: PR Industry Up Eight Percent To $10bn. Retrived from:
ProPR
(2013, January) Ukrainians start to pay attention to brand social position.
Retrieved from:
Wikipedia.
Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility
Research paper. Arseniy Fedosiuk, Group A2
Historiographical Discussions on Croatian Nationalism in mid-19th Century
(on the example of studies by Djourou Shurmin and Rudolph Horvat)
Article gives an overview on early Croatian nationalism and the Illyrian
movement question in works of Djourou Shurmin and Rudolph Horvat. It
traces differences between authors' views on the most significant aspects of
Illyrism and concepts they build to represent its narrative.
Introduction - 1
Methodological background - 2
The question of emergence of
Illyrism - 3
Approaches to periodization of
Illirysm - 4
Discussions on the idea of Illyrian
unity - 4
Intellectual sources of Illyrian
movement - 5
Summary – 5
For
a decent period of time and till nowadays the question of early Croatian
nationalism also known as Illyrism has been one of the central and most
significant themes in Croatian historiography. In the early twentieth century
study of Illirysm and Illyrian movement concentrated around the University of Zagreb
and the Croatian Academy
of Sciences and Arts, as major research centers of the Kingdom
of Croatia and Slavonia
(Leshilovskaya 125). At that time a relatively young Croatian historiography
was focusing its efforts on producing a grand narrative of national history.
The researchers, influenced by Romanticism and the Croatian national movement,
attempted to focus on the "glorious pages" of Croatian history in
their works that led to increasing interest in the Illyrian movement among the
academic community. One of the earliest and at the same time the most extensive
and comprehensive studies of Illirysm in the twentieth century
historiography belonged to Djourou Shurmin and Rudolph Horvat (Leshilovskaya 140).
In fact they were one of the first who explored the question Illyrian movement
in retrospectively, making an attempt to build some system of representations
of illyrian movement and provide a comprehensive model of its factual and
ideological components (Orel
63). Study of Illyrism resulted in lively discussions around this subject. Even
though the methodology and the source base were generally almost identical,
they were considered by researchers in different ways. But at the same time the
existence of two completely opposite concepts of early Croatian nationalism can
not be traced. Despite this, two different points of view were produced.
Additionally, works of both historians corresponded to the
"zeitgeist" of their time and its historiographical trends associated
primarily with the Croatian national revival. Actually they determined a
prevailing system of ideas about the Illyrian movement as well as early
Croatian nationalism.
Djourou
Shurmin (1867-1937) led his researches at the University of Zagreb. He began
his scientific work with Croatian Studies and History of Literature, issuing
several publications dedicated to Croatian and Serbian literary history. Later,
his scientific interest had switched to the age of national revival in Croatia,
resulting in fundamental work Croatian
renaissance published in 1902. Rudolf Horvat (1873-1947) received PhD at
the University of Zagreb, where he later worked as a professor of history at
the Faculty of Philosophy. His field of research originally covered mostly the
medieval history, but later he begins to explore the history of the nineteenth
century and the Illyrian movement. His researches of Illyrism were displayed on
pages of two fundamental works - History
of Croatia and The newest era
of Croatian history published in 1906. Although both Rudolf Horvat and
Djourou Shurmin belonged to the so-called Zagreb historiographical school and
besides their works were published around the same time, their views on the
Croatian national revival and the Illyrian movement are somewhat different.
Both
historians generally built quite a similar concept of Illyrian movement and
attracted identical methodology - analysis and reconstruction of the
event-based documents and written sources (Leshilovskaya 142). Also it should
be noted that the studies of Shurmin and Horvat were influenced by concepts of
other Croatian historian Tadiya Smichiklas, known as the "father of modern
Croatian historiography" and the one who brought the very idea of Slavic
unity into Croatian history (Kurelac 47).
Considering
the differences between the concepts of Illyrism in researches of Djourou
Shurmin and Rudolf Horvath, first of all it should be noted that such
differences are focused primarily in the field of interpretation, which
contains such aspects as the question of genesis and intellectual roots,
periodization, social and political role, problem of the Illyrian unity etc.
Thus, the authors made emphasis on different components and often their accents
were different. Such accents as well as the conceptual components, individuals
and events they chose to explore in order to produce a narrative of Illyrian
revival represents their attitude to Illyrism and Croatian renaissance.
D.
Shurmin depicts Illirysm basing on the thesis of its emergence as a movement
for the revival of Croatian language and literature, which later switched to
struggle against Magyarization (135). Thus, Shurmin's concept is based on the
determination of Illirysm as primarily cultural-literary movement. Historian
notes that the prerequisites of the Illyrian movement were synergistic and
included as well as limiting the rights of Croatian parliament, Magyarization
of social life and the emergence of the idea of Slavic unity (Shurmin 160). At
the same time, Rudolf Horvat links Illyrian movement to a comprehensive process
of the reformation of Croatian society (201). This, from the first sight
ambiguous definition, was used to describe the Illirysm as holistic and
integral movement. Horvat do not single out particular political or cultural
components; moreover he does not make a clear reference to certain specific
areas of public life. Analyzing the background of the rise of Illyrism, the
most significant are determined by Horvat as the desire for unification of
Croatian lands and the restoration of its civil rights and status in the Kingdom of Hungary (219).
One
of the main differences finds its expression in the choice of social constructs
to analyze. Horvat as a starting point uses the Croatian Sabor, on which he
bases his chronology and construction of the narrative (205). Moreover, the
very logic of presentation is closely linked to the political life of the
Croatian lands. On the other side Shurmin gives more attention to the changes
and transformations in the humanitarian and intellectual field, and bases his
research on this.
Djourou
Shurmin and Rudolf Horvat use different approaches to periodization of
Illirysm. Interestingly, both researchers trace the genesis of movement from
the early 30-ies (Horvat 192, Shurmin 99). However, they date back the actual
appearance of Illyrian movement to later period. Shurmin using formal approach,
basically the proliferation of the ethnonym "Illyrian", defines the
beginning for 1836 (101). According to his conception this is the date of the
rise of Illyrism as well-coordinated movement for the revival of Croatia
and cultural association of all South Slavic nations (Shurmin 120). He states
that it was caused by the transition to shtokavsky dialect, which soon becomes
a core of the Croatian literary language (Shurmin 155). On the other hand
Horvat offers different periodisation, taking into account the organizational
component. Considering it as the "revival of Croatian literature and
society" he sets its beginning for 1835, as the start date of the publication
of "Croatian news" and "Danitsa Illirska" (Horvat 260).
Referring
to the idea of Illyrian unity, it should be noted that authors are not
unanimous regarding the interpretation of the genesis of this idea. Horvat
believes that the concept of Illyrian unity arose due to the failure of the
Croatian political nobility in search of allies and protectors as well as so
called treason by Vienna and Budapest . This, he said, initiated a search
for allies among themselves – Slovenes, Serbs and Bulgarians (Horvat 275). In
addition, author regards the emergence of concept of the unity of all South
Slavs as the product first of all of the Croatian political thought, and later
the Illyrian movement. In his view, such idea was picked up by romantically
minded young Croatian and Slovenian intellectuals and turned to the cultural
and literary stream (Horvat 280). In contrast, Shurmin stated that the
formation of these concepts attracted the idea of the Slavic unity from the
very beginning (178). In his view, an important role was played by Slovenian,
Czech and Serbian influences, including the views of Jan Kollar and Pavel
Safarik (Shurmin 185). Shurmin shows that Illyrian movement appeared primarily
in cooperation with Czech, Serbian and Slovenian intellectuals. In addition, he
says that Illyrism was the product of intellectual activity of all South Slavic
nations and not only Croats (Shurmin 192).
Rather
controversial is also the question of intellectual sources of Illyrian
movement. Croatian historiography of early twentieth century almost unanimously
associates it with Western influences and do not tie it to Croatian
intellectual tradition at all. D. Shurmin believes that the intellectual and
spiritual sources of Illyrism were presented by the French Revolution and
German national revival (221). After all, intellectual background according to
Shurmin can be found in Western Europe. In contrast, R. Horvath strongly
emphasizes on the so-called "Hungarian example": young Croatian
intellectuals during their education in Hungarian universities were able to
experience the development of the Hungarian national movement (290).
The
analyzed studies of Djourou Shurmin and Rudolf Horvat clearly show that
Croatian historiography at the beginning of its formation presented different
views on key aspects of national history. Although the authors used a limited
source base and methodological approaches to create a narrative of Illyrism,
the existence of separate, but significant differences in the interpretation of
both event-chronological and conceptual components can be seen. Thus, pluralism
and ambiguity of ideas considering the Illyrian movement is observed almost
from its earliest comprehensive studies.
Reference List in APA
format
Horvat R. (1906). New period of Croatian history.
Zagreb.
Kurelac M. (1995) Historian Tadija Smičiklas and
his historiographical conceptions. Vjesnik Hrvatske akademije znanosti i
umjetnosti, 6-7, 41-59.
Leshilovskaya I. (1987). Historiography of history
of South and Western Slavs. Moscow.
Orel U. (2007). Illyrism in interwar Croatian
historiography. Magisterium: Historical studies, 28, 61-75
Shurmin D. (1903). Croatian renaissance. From
1790 to 1836. Zagreb.
Report on Education Problems, Arseniy Fedosiuk, Group A2
Main types of services and employment for a full-time student
Survey comments
Introduction: On the 30th March 2013, a survey was conducted among 20 students of the Faculty of Humanities and Faculty of Social Sciences and Social Technologies at the National University of “Kyiv-Mohyla Academy”. The purpose of the survey was to discover students’ attitudes to possibilities of employment during study.
The survey was conducted by means of a questionnaire given to the students to complete. The survey consisted of 8 questions – 4 were straight-choice questions, 2 – multiple choice, and one open question. The first question was aimed to find out how many respondents have the experience of working during the full-time study. Second one was related to the possibility of combining work and study. Third and fourth questions concerned the reasons which lead students to work and the time they spent (or are willing to spend) for it. 6 and 7 question were to discover the relation between student’s work and field of study and scope of employment. The last question asked to identify the main problems student faced (or may face) while combining work and study; and it was open.
Comment: The main findings were as follows. 80% of all respondents worked during the study, 15% don’t have such experience, and 5% are only planning to. Half of the students support the thesis that work may interfere with normal student activity, 30% support such thesis partially and 20% deny it. Considering the main reasons, the most popular one are financial issues and gaining work experience. Survey showed that half of the students are willing to spend 3-4 hours for work daily, while choices with 1-2 hours and 5 hours or more gained 25% each. Also it was found that in half of cases the work was related to student’s field of study. At the same time 10 students of 20 worked as low-skilled labor, 7 choose freelance and only 2 – unskilled labor. Analysis of answers for the last question can show a strong tendency of determination the lack of time as the main problem for students that are trying to combine work and full-time study.ACR Essay, Arseniy Fedosiuk, Group A2
The Problem of Multiculturalism
Last 40 years denoted in world history as a
time, when borders were opening: the fall of totalitarian regimes, increasing
of social and cross-country mobility and overall improvement of the quality of
life caused to intensification of migration processes. Statistic says that from
1980 to 2008 the total rate of migration increased by 32%. And of course such increase
brought the wide range of problems. Being highly significant problem, migration
combines the variety of different aspects, such as multiculturalism, ethnical
and cultural identity, religion, racism, xenophobia etc. Multiculturalism, at
the first sight pretending to be the innocent problem, really is the most
controversial one.
In case of traditionally mono-ethnical European
societies and countries the belief in multiculturalism to be positive development
path is fundamentally wrong. The first issue is the question of identity and
integration. In the vast majority of cases immigrants do not integrate in the
society of the host country. Cultural and mental differences are too great to
achieve some kind of even semi-assimilation of the immigrants. Specific features
of historical development led to formation of almost diametrically opposite
identities and even the ways of reasoning. In this case immigrants often even
do not try to integrate in the local communities and cultural systems. The second
major problem is conflicts on the basis of inequality. It covers the wide range
of expressions, starting from the primitive ‘everyday’ racism, xenophobia, and
imperceptions of immigrants. Of course, it causes an appropriate reaction from
the immigrants, which led to the spread of ethnic-based crimes, formation of
ethnic districts etc. Also it should be added that people from ethnic
minorities tend to commit more crimes than local people. In general, things
follow the universal scheme – hate breeds hate.
Trying to promote the idea of multiculturalism
in the public opinion its supporters are suggesting some really reasonable
arguments. Firstly, they state that multiculturalism pretends to be almost the
only way to ensure tolerance and democracy through the world. On their opinion
such diversity will play a role of deterrent factor for any anti-democratic or
totalitarian attempts. Often they appeal to the discourse of Nazism and racism
and claim that such ideologies would never arise in multienthnical society.
Second argument they present is a look on multiculturalism from the side of culture,
art etc. They state that at the junction of different cultures a brand new and
better one will emerge. So it was with jazz and blues in the USA, for example.
However, the reality differs. Considering the
question of democracy and tolerance studies shows, that forcing multiculturalism
often causes the emerging of xenophobia and racism. For the mono-ethnical
traditional societies the invasion of elements of foreign culture might be no
as useful as it seems and even harmful. Local identity tries to validate and
protect itself and as a result the massive of conflicts based on the national
or race issues appear. From the side of cultural value and its possible profit the
historical perspective shows that such effects are rather exception from a rule
than a rule.
Therefore, considering the multiculturalism
from such perspectives, it can be assumed that it has a little profit for traditional
mono-ethnical societies and states.
15.4.13
Research Paper, Maya Synytsia, A2
Maya Synytsia
Professor Fedoriv
English for Master Programs
11 April 2013
Main
Ideas and Personalities in Historical Development of Hermeneutics as a General
Method
Hermeneutics is the art and theory of understanding and interpretation
of linguistic and non-linguistic expressions. It has a significant influence on
the development of contemporary philosophy, in spite of the fact that
hermeneutics became truly philosophical only in nineteenth century. It happened
when Friedrich Schleiermacher articulated a coherent conception of universal
hermeneutics that relates to linguistic meaning in general. Before that, the
problem of understanding was viewed only on the level of special hermeneutics,
without transition to the sphere of general theory of interpretation. Nevertheless,
its roots reach nearly the very beginning of Western philosophy. So, the aim of
this research is to reconstruct the path of hermeneutics from a special science
to a general method.
As a theory of interpretation, the hermeneutic tradition stretches all
the way back to ancient Greek philosophy. Ancient Greek word hermeneia, from which the term hermeneutics derives, was used in
everyday life and meant “translation”, or “interpretation”. The notion itself
was introduced into philosophy mainly through the title of Aristotle's work Peri Hermeneias ('On
Interpretation'), one of the earliest (circa 360 BC) philosophical works that examined
the relationship between language and logic in a comprehensive and explicit
way. Aristotle viewed interpretation as a panhuman ability, which is enabled by
adherence to certain recommendations and methods. On the other hand, his
teacher Plato depicted interpretation not as an art, but as a result of divine
intervention.
Middle Ages were a turning point in the history of hermeneutics. The view
of the problem of understanding resembled that of Plato, but adopted Christian
character. According to Christian beliefs, humans are narrow-minded due to
their nature, they prove to be unable to understand the design of God, so God
becomes the co-author of Bible, inspiring human beings to write it. Therefore,
the divine afflation of the author played a significant part in formation of
Great Kanon. Origen Adamantius, the first Christian hermeneutist, stated that
if writing required divine afflation, reading and interpretation of the written
required it, too (Shpet).
However, many controversies regarding interpretation of the Holy
Scripture appeared in the days of early Christianity, leading to development of
a considerable amount of heresies. Augustine of Hippo, one of major theological
hermeneutists of Middle Ages, examined this problem and proposed various
methods that could help to interpret the text correctly. He also developed some
of the notions and principles that later hermeneutists would use, such as the
notion of congeniality, a panhuman ability to see the same truths. Due to
congeniality, the interpreter is able to understand the author of the Bible,
the receiver of divine afflation, as if they are sharing this afflation (Augustine
112).
While Augustine distinguished among four types of interpretation of the
Holy Scripture: historical, allegorical, analogical and etiological, Thomas
Aquinas did not exclude literal interpretation, stating that numerous layers of
sense reach out to wider audience. Primitive readers are able to grasp only
literal meaning, however, under appropriate circumstances, additional sense
layers become intelligible. Literal interpretation is caused by corporeal
nature of humans, this is why Holy Scripture contains numerous metaphors,
determined by inability of human authors to perceive and describe divine nature
beyond corporeity (Thomas Aquinas 16).
The beginning of legal education, founded on systematical study of Roman
Civil law (circa XI century), became additional momentum for development of
hermeneutics. Legal education was based on dialectics as reconciliation of contradictions, and on the ground of
this dialectics, a special discipline – legal hermeneutics – appeared. Despite
the fact that the development of legal and theological hermeneutics took
parallel paths, in certain cases they integrated in order to complete specific
tasks (Kuznetsov).
Peculiarities of the Age of Renaissance were determined by a new
anthropological turn, which caused reconsideration of philosophical and
scientific accomplishments of the previous period, as well as religious
upheaval, which forced Christianity to review its dogmas and norms. Hermeneutics
had to consider the new requirements as well. In those days, its main purpose
was to fight religious dogmatism, so the most serious hermeneutical projects of
Reformation age belonged to Protestants, and later hermeneutist opposed even
protestant dogmatism: for instance, H.-G. Gadamer stated that F.
Schleiermacher’s hermeneutical project was based on such opposition (Gadamer
170). However, Martin Luther’s thesis
that Holy Scripture contains its own interpretation allowed to reject the idea
that a special science of interpretation of the Bible is required.
Due to provision of autonomy to individuality, hermeneutics withdrew
from theology and developed within other special disciplines. For example,
significant advances in the development of legal hermeneutics are associated
with Hugo Grotius, the author of the tractate On the Law of War and Peace, which is almost fully dedicated to
jurisprudence; however, chapter 16 of this book presents a remarkable example
of special legal hermeneutics. In this chapter, Grotius indicated problems that
may occur during the work with laws. In his opinion, legislative acts bear
contradictions not due to wrong wording, but because people tend to interpret
laws in arbitrary fashion, thus harming one another. Therefore, Hugo Grotius
developed a method of adequate understanding of laws for the purpose of
practical use. After Grotius, legal hermeneutics became part of general theory
of law.
Another thinker of that age, Matthias Flacius, introduced the concept of
contextual interpretation, based on the idea that the true sense is one and
objective in relation to the individual. Flacius, however, introduced the
concept of the context as well, thus enabling the text to gain new meanings and
interpretations. Moreover, Flacius also formulated the problem of hermeneutic
circle (Kuznetsov).
Projects of romanticists and their immediate predecessors have special
meaning for modern hermeneutics. Hermeneutical vocabulary evolved in this
period, and romantic hermeneutists guided the author of the first project of
general hermeneutics – Friedrich Schleiermacher.
Linguistic theory of Friedrich Wilhelm von Humboldt played a significant
part in formation of general hermeneutics. Humboldt analyzed language tools and
peculiarities of functioning of different notions in different languages, and
formulated a theory, according to which language appears as a result of
continuous process of development of a nation, while the mentality of the
nation as an integral entity can be seen through the lens of language.
Correlation of language and the mentality of the nation constitutes something
similar to a hermeneutical circle, in which the mentality of a nation is not understood
without knowledge of the language, but knowledge of the language demands
understanding of the mentality.
August Böckh in his hermeneutical project proposed to conduct a specific
experiment in order to comprehend the role of cognition and its possibility: to
view all sciences as philosophies, which suggests specific correlation of
scientific and humane spheres. As a protestant, he assumed two main principles
of an individual: spiritual and material, and according to this he divided
sciences into those that are oriented to material or spiritual sphere of life.
However, philology takes a special place in this system: it lies on the border
of these two spheres and it is able to cognize what is given in advance, namely
sense. Sense for Böckh lies in the meaning of the text, however, its truth is
secondary, since the creator of the text has already discovered it. The demand
to learn what others learned before resonates with Schleiermacher’s motto of
hermeneutics: to know the author better than they knew themselves.
Specific spiritual movement of philological hermeneutics had impact on
the formation of general theory of interpretation as well. For example,
spiritual interpretation, proposed by Friedrich Ast, definitely correlates with
Schleiermacher’s psychological approach. Besides, Schleiermacher mentions Ast
as the author of the best articulation of the problem of hermeneutic circle:
Formulated by Ast and in many ways rather well
explained hermeneutical foundation, according to which the whole is understood
from the part, and the part, in its turn, may be understood only from the
whole, is so universal and undeniable for the art of hermeneutics, that even
the primary hermeneutical operations cannot be performed without using it.
Indeed, most of hermeneutical rules are based on it to a greater or lesser
extent. (Schleiermacher 440)
Philological hermeneutics was not the only one to play significant role
in scientific life of the day, however. Johann Martin Chladni (Chladenius)
strived to use hermeneutics to analyze history instead of the texts of the Holy
Scripture. Thus, he extended the sphere of influence of hermeneutics, redefined
it in terms of logic, and underpinned it with scientific arguments (Kuznetsov).
Chladenius’ another significant achievement was his project of pedagogical
hermeneutics. Gadamer states that Chladenius reproached his time for loss of
the ability to reason spontaneously. From the point of view of pedagogics, the
disadvantage of this phenomenon lies in the fact that an intellectual abyss
inevitably appears between the teacher and the student. Chladenius proposed to use hermeneutics in
order to overcome this problem, shifting its target from distinguishing the
truth in the text to explanation of obscurities (Gadamer 172).
Such special projects, as historical hermeneutics, presented by Barthold
Georg Niebuhr and Leopold von Ranke, or literary hermeneutics, created by the
Schlegel brothers and Novalis, have significant meaning, too. However, the
philological hermeneutics gave primary momentum for formation of general theory
of interpretation, and Friedrich Schleiermacher retained its inherent
orientation to the language component, which later found broad response in his
successors’ works.
It can be concluded that hermeneutics had a long history before it
became a general theory of interpretation, reaching
back at least as far as ancient Greece. However, it took the most important
step in the age of Romanticism, when it was viewed mostly within philology.
Even though Friedrich Schleiermacher, the author of the first philosophical
theory of hermeneutics, belonged to the romanticist movement only partially,
his hermeneutical project emerged from it.
Works
Cited (MLA Style)
Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Theologica.
Kyiv: Elga, 2007. Print
Augustine of Hippo. On Christian
Doctrine. Kyiv: Kyiv-Pechersk Laura, 1835. Print
Bohachov, Andrii. Experience and
Sense. Kyiv: Duh i Litera, 2012. Print.
Dilthey, Wilhelm. "Schleiermacher's Hermeneutical System in
Relation to Earlier Protestant Hermeneutics". Hermeneutics and the Study of History. Web.
Gadamer, Hans-Georg. Truth and
Method. Kyiv: Universe, 2000. Print.
Kuznetsov, Valerii. Hermeneutics
and its path from a specific method to a school of thought. Web.
Plato. Ion. Web.
Schleiermacher, Friedrich. "On the Concept of Hermeneutics, with
reference to F.A. Wolfs Instructions and Ast's Textbook". Doxa (August 2008). Odessa: Odessa
National University. Print.
Shpet, Gustav. “Hermeneutics and its problems”. Context (1991). Moscow: Nauka. Print.
Works Cited (APA Style)
1.
Thomas Aquinas.
(2007). Summa Theologica. Kyiv: Elga.
2.
Augustine of
Hippo. (1835). On Christian Doctrine.
Kyiv: Kyiv-Pechersk Laura.
3.
Bohachov, A. (2012).
Experience and Sense. Kyiv: Duh i Litera.
4.
Dilthey, W. Schleiermacher's Hermeneutical System in Relation to Earlier
Protestant Hermeneutics. Hermeneutics and
the Study of History. Retrieved from: http://www.questia.com/library/104388010/hermeneutics-and-the-study-of-history/.
5.
Gadamer, H.-G.
(2000) Truth and Method. Kyiv: Universe.
6.
Kuznetsov, V. (1999,
October) Hermeneutics and its path from a
specific method to a school of thought. Retrieved from: http://www.ruthenia.ru/logos/number/1999_10/04.html/.
7.
Plato. Ion. Retrieved from: http://www.philosophy.ru/library/plato/ion.html/.
8.
Schleiermacher, F.
(2008, August)."On the Concept of Hermeneutics, with reference to F.A.
Wolfs Instructions and Ast's Textbook". Doxa. Odessa: Odessa National University.
9.
Shpet, G. (1991).
Hermeneutics and its problems. Context.
Moscow: Nauka.
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